Negro National Anthem
'Lift Every Voice and Sing'

Lift every voice and sing
Till earth and heaven ring,
Ring with the harmonies of Liberty;
Let our rejoicing rise
High as the listening skies,
Let it resound loud as the rolling sea.
Sing a song full of the faith that the dark past has taught us,
Sing a song full of the hope that the present has brought us,
Facing the rising sun of our new day begun
Let us march on till victory is won.

Stony the road we trod,
Bitter the chastening rod,
Felt in the days when hope unborn had died;
Yet with a steady beat,
Have not our weary feet
Come to the place for which our fathers sighed?
We have come over a way that with tears has been watered,
We have come, treading our path through the blood of the slaughtered,
Out from the gloomy past,
Till now we stand at last
Where the white gleam of our bright star is cast.

God of our weary years,
God of our silent tears,
Thou who has brought us thus far on the way;
Thou who has by Thy might
Led us into the light,
Keep us forever in the path, we pray.
Lest our feet stray from the places, Our God, where we met Thee,
Lest, our hearts drunk with the wine of the world, we forget Thee;
Shadowed beneath Thy hand,
May we forever stand.
True to our GOD,
True to our native land.

"Lift Every Voice and Sing" (1900) was written by James Weldon Johnson for a presentation in celebration of the birthday of Abraham Lincoln. The song was originally performed in Jacksonville, Florida, by children. The popular title for this work is THE NEGRO NATIONAL ANTHEM.
The music was composed by his brother and songwriting partner, J. Rosamond Johnson.

February 2nd 1839
Spark Plug Inventor Edmond Berger patented the spark plug.

February 2nd 1862
Slavery District of Columbia abolishes slavery

February 2nd 1897
Ice Cream Scooper Invented Alfred L. Cralle invented the ice cream scooper, patent #576,395

February 2nd 1897
A.L. Cralle patents Ice Cream Mold Patent No.576,395

Friday, February 02, 1912
Herbert Mills, of the original Mills Brothers Quartet, was born in Piqua, Ohio. The highly successful quartet was known for its smooth harmony.

Monday, February 02, 1914
William Ellisworth Artist is born in Washington,N.C. Educated at Syracuse University and a student of Augusta Savage. His works will be exhibited at Atlanta University.

Monday, February 02, 1914
Ernest Just, biologist, wins Spingarn Medal

Tuesday, February 02, 1915
Biologist Ernest E.Just receives the Spingarn medal for his pioneering in cell division and fertilization.

Monday, February 02, 1948
President Truman sent Congress a special message urging adoption of a civil rights program, including a fair employment practices commission and anti-lynching and anti-poll tax measures.

Thursday, February 02, 1956
Autherine J. Lucy becomes the first black student to attend the University of Alabama.

Friday, February 02, 1962
Seven whites and four Blacks arrested after all-night sit-in at Englewood, N.J., city hall. Four Black mothers arrested after sit-in at Chicago elementary school. Mothers later received suspended $50 sentence.

Thursday, February 02, 1989
In Tampa,Florida, a rebellion followed the suspicious death of Edgar Allen Price, a police suspect who died during an arrest. Police contended that Price "hit his head on the ground several times."

February 3rd
Reginald F. Lewis was born on this day in Baltimore, Maryland. He received his law degree from Harvard Law School in 1968. He was a partner in Murphy, Thorpes& Lewis, the first black law firm on Wall Street.

February 3rd 1810
Black Hero of Argentina dies Antonio Ruiz (El Negro Falucho), national hero of Buenos Aires, Agentina, dies for his country.

February 3rd 1874
Blanche Kelso Bruce elected to a full six-year term in the U.S. Senate by the Mississippi legislature.

Tuesday, February 03, 1903
Jack Jackson became the first Negro Heavyweight Champion.

Tuesday, February 03, 1920
The Negro Baseball League founded.

Tuesday, February 03, 1948
Rosa Ingram and her fourteen-and sixteen -year-old sons condemned to death for the alleged murder of a white Georgian. Mrs. Ingram said she acted in self-defense.

Friday, February 03, 1956
Autherine J. Lucy admitted to University of Alabama. She was suspended February 7 after a riot at the University and expelled February 29.

Monday, February 03, 1964
School officials reported that 464,000 Black and Puerto Rican students boycotted New York City public schools. More than 267,000 were absent during second boycott, March 16.

Wednesday, February 03, 1965
Geraldine McCullough, sculptor wins Widener Geraldine McCullough, sculptor, wins the Widener Gold Medal award.

Wednesday, February 03, 1988
In Montgomery, Alabama, Thomas Reed, president of the Alabama chapter of the NAACP, was arrested after he and 11 others attempted to strike a Confederate flag flying atop the state capitol building.

Friday, February 03, 1989
Bill White named president of National League Six time All-Star Bill

Friday, February 03, 1989
Tennis professional Lori McNeil defeated Chris Evert in the Pan Pacific Open in Tokyo.

Monday, February 03, 1997
Award-winning jazz drummer Tony Williams dies in Daly City, California

Wednesday, February 03, 1999
Cyber-Youth Network Launch On Wednesday, February 3rd, for the first time in history, America's urban students will have a Web site specifically designed to address their educational needs and interests.

Tuesday, February 04, 1913
Rosa Parks (born Roas Louise McCauley) was born on this day in Tuskegee, Alabama.

Tuesday, February 04, 1969
MPLA begins armed struggle against Portugal in Angola.

Thursday, February 04, 1971
National Guard mobilized to quell rioting in Wilmington, North Carolina. Two persons killed. Until the 9th.

Sunday, February 04, 1996
J.C. Watts becomes the first Black selected to respond to a state of the unioun address.

February 5th 1866
Congressman Thaddeus Stevens offered an amendment to Freedmen's Bureau bill authorizing the distribution of public land and confiscated land to freedmen and loyal refugees in forty acre lots.

February 5th 1900
U.S. Rep. Jefferson Long dies U.S. Rep. Jefferson Long, elected from the state of Georgia, died in Washington D.C. Long was the only candidate interested in running for the 60-day term and he was duly elected.

Monday, February 05, 1934
Hank Aaron born Henry "Home Run King" Aaron, baseball superstar was born.

Sunday, February 05, 1950
Birthday of Natalie Cole Singer Natalie Cole, daughter of legedary singer Nat Cole, born in Los Angeles, California. Singing professionally at age 11, by 1976 Cole had won Grammys for New Artist of the Year and Best R&B Female.

Wednesday, February 05, 1958
Clifton R. Wharton Sr. confirmed as minister to Rumania. Career diplomat was the first Black to head a U.S. embassy in Europe.

Monday, February 05, 1962
Suit seeking to bar Englewood, N.J., from maintaining "racial segregated" elementary schools filed in U.S. District Court.

Monday, February 05, 1990
Columbia University graduate and Harvard University law student Barack Obabma became the first African American named president of the Harvard Law Review.

February 6th 1820
U.S. Blacks emigrate back to Sierra Leone First organized emigration of U.S. Blacks back to Africa, from New York to Sierra Leone, 1820

February 6th 1820
United States population: 9,638,453. Black population: 1,771,656 (18.4 per cent). "Mayflower of Liberia" sailed from New York City with eighty-six Blacks. Ship arrived in Sierra Leone, March 9.

February 6th 1867
The Peabody Fund for Black education in the South established.

Monday, February 06, 1933
Walter E. Fauntroy was born in Washington, D.C. He went on to become a District of Columbia delegate to the House of Representatives.

Tuesday, February 06, 1945
Bob Marley, Jamacian reggae star is born.

Monday, February 06, 1961
Jail-in movement started in Rock Hill, S.C., when students refused to pay fines and requested jail sentences. Students Nonviolent Coordinating Committee urged south-wide "Jail, No Bail" campaign.

Saturday, February 06, 1993
Tennis player Arthur Ashe dies. Ashe was the first African American to win at Wimbledon.

February 7th 1872
Alcorn A&M College opened

February 7th 1883
Eubie Blake, pianist, born.

Sunday, February 07, 1926
Negro History week originated by Carter G.Woodson is observed for the first time .

Sunday, February 07, 1926
Black History Week Carter G. Woodson creates Negro History Week. In 1976 it became Black History Month.

Wednesday, February 07, 1945
Irwin Molison appointed judge of the US Customs Court.

Thursday, February 07, 1946
Filibuster in U.S. Senate killed FEPC bill.

Tuesday, February 07, 1967
Chris Rock Born Comedian, author, recording artist, actor, and talk show host Chris Rock was born in South Carolina. He will become a critically comedian, hosting his self titled show on HBO.

Sunday, February 08, 1925
Marcus Garvey entered federal prison in Atlanta. Students staged strike at Fisk University to protest policies of white administration.

Tuesday, February 08, 1944
Harry S. McAlphin - First African American to accredited to attend White House press conference.

Thursday, February 08, 1968
Diminutive actor Gary Coleman was born in Zion, Illinois. Despite a childhood of medical troubles, Coleman went on to become a television star in numerous situation comedies.

Thursday, February 08, 1968
Officers killed three students during demonstration on the campus of South Carolina State in Orangeburg, South Carolina. Students were protesting segregation at an Orangeburg bowling alley.

Saturday, February 08, 1986
Figure skater Debi Thomas became the first African American to win the Women's Singles of the U.S. National Figure Skating Championship competition, was a pre-med student at Stanford University.

Saturday, February 08, 1986
Ophrah's On! Oprah Winfrey becomes the first African American woman to host a nationally syndicated talk show.

Thursday, February 08, 1990
Andey Rooney suspended for racist comments Andy Rooney, a CBS "60 Minutes" commentator, received a 90-day suspension from work because of racist remarks about African Americans attributed to him by Chris Bull.

Friday, February 09, 1906
Death of Paul Laurence Dunbar (33), Dayton, Ohio

Wednesday, February 09, 1944
1944 Novelist Alice Walker was born in Eatonton, Georgia.

Saturday, February 09, 1952
Author Ralph Ellison's novel Invisible Man wins the National Book Award.

Tuesday, February 09, 1971
Baseball Hall of Fame inducts Leroy "Satchel" Paige.

Thursday, February 09, 1995
Bernard Harris, African-American astronaut, takes space walk.

February 10th 1854
Educator Joseph Charles Price was born

February 10th 1868
Conservatives, aided by military forces, seized convention hall and established effective control over Reconstruction process in Florida.

Sunday, February 10, 1907
1907 Civil rights activist and politician Grace Towns Hamilton was born in Atlanta, Georgia. She received her undergraduate degree from hometown Atlanta University,

Thursday, February 10, 1927
Attorney Ronald Brown was elected national chairman of the Democratic Party and became the first African American to hold the post. Brown was later appointed Secretary of Commerce under the Clinton adminstration.

Thursday, February 10, 1927
On this day Leontyne Price, who will become an internationally acclaimed opera singer, is born in Laurel, Mississippi.

Saturday, February 10, 1940
Singer Roberta Flack born

Sunday, February 10, 1946
1946 Georgia-born Jackie Robinson -- major league baseball's first black player -- married Rachel Isum.

Monday, February 10, 1964
1964 After 12 days of debate and voting on 125 amendments, the U.S. House of Representatives passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 by a vote of 290-130.

Thursday, February 10, 1966
Economist Andrew Brimmer appointed to Federal Reserve Board.

Monday, February 10, 1992
Alex Haley, renowned author, dies

February 11th 1898
Owen L. W. Smith of North Carolina, AME Zion minister and educator, named minister to Liberia.

Saturday, February 11, 1961
First Black legal protest in America pressed by eleven Blacks who petitioned for freedom in New Netherlands (New York). Council of New Netherlands freed the eleven petitioners.

Saturday, February 11, 1961
February 11, Robert Weaver sworn in as administrator of the Housing and Home Finance Agency, highest federal post to date by a Black American.

Thursday, February 11, 1971
Whitney Young Jr., National Urban League director, drowned during recreational swim at international conference in Lagos, Nigeria.

Wednesday, February 11, 1976
Clifford Alexander Jr. confirmed as the first Black secretary of the United States army.

Saturday, February 11, 1989
Barbara C. Harris becomes the first woman bishop of the Anglican Church.

Sunday, February 11, 1990
Nelson Mandela is released from a south african prison after being detained for 27 years as a political prisoner.

February 12th 1793
First fugitive slave law enacted by Congress. The measure made it a criminal offense to harbor a fugitive slave or prevent his arrest.

February 12th 1865
Henry Highland Garnet, first Black to speak in the Capitol, delivered memorial sermon on the abolition of slavery at services in the House of Representatives.

February 12th 1869
Isaac Murphy, famous jockey dies

February 12th 1882
Black rights activist Henry Highland Garnet dies, soon after being appointed the U.S. ambassador to Liberia.

February 12th 1900
For a Lincoln birthday celebration, James Weldon Johnson writes the lyrics for "Lift Every Voice and Sing". With music by his brother, J. Rosamond.

Tuesday, February 12, 1907
Roberta Martin, gospel great born Born this day in Helena, AR --- died Jan. 18, 1969 Worked with gospel greats like Thomas Dorsey and Theodore Frye. Sis. Martin became owner of one of the largest gospel publishing house.

Friday, February 12, 1909
NAACP founded. Call for organizational meeting was issued on 100th anniversary of Abraham Lincoln's birth by forty-seven whites and six Blacks.

Wednesday, February 12, 1930
In Tuskegee, Alabama, the Rosenwald Fund made grants to the Alabama State Board of Health to help meet the cost of a sutdy of syphilis in African American men living in rural Georgia and Alabama.

Monday, February 12, 1934
Birthday of William Felton Russell, better known as "Bill" Russel, he was player-coach of the Boston Celtics basketball team in 1968 and 1969. Russell was born in Monroe, Louisiana.

Thursday, February 12, 1948
First Lt. Nancy C. Leftenant became the first Black accepted in the regular army nursing corps.

Tuesday, February 12, 1952
Congressional Medal of Honor awarded posthumously to Sgt. Cornelius H. Charlton for heroism in Korea.

Sunday, February 12, 1956
First black late-night talk show host in history. In 1956, the first black late-night talk show host in history, Arsenio hall was born.

Monday, February 12, 1962
Bus boycott started in Macon, Georgia

Saturday, February 12, 1983
Pianist Eubie Blake died in Brooklyn, NY 5 days after his 100th birthday.

Thursday, February 12, 1998
The National Association for The Advancement of Colored People is a civil rights organization founded in 1909 by 60 black and white citizens.

February 13th 1635
America's first public school, the Boston Latin School, opened in Boston. Black students were excluded from attending.

February 13th 1882
Death of Henry Highland Garnet (66), diplomat and protest leader, in Monrovia, Liberia.

Tuesday, February 13, 1923
The first Black professional basketball team "The Renaissance" organized.

Wednesday, February 13, 1957
Southern Christian Leadership Conference organized founded in New Orleans with Martin Luther King Jr. as president.

February 14th 1760
Richard Allen born in slavery in Philadelphia

February 14th 1817
Possible birthday of Frederick Douglass, abolitionist and orator. Born into slavery as Frederick Baile, Douglass purchased his freedom in 1845 and went on to become the greatest abolitionist of his time.

February 14th 1867
Morehouse College organized in Augusta, Georgia. The institution was later moved to Atlanta. New registration law in Tennessee abolished racial distinctions in voting.

Friday, February 14, 1936
National Negro Congress organized at Chicago meeting attended by 817 delegates representing more than 500 organizations. Asa Phillip Randolph of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters was elected president.

Thursday, February 14, 1946
Entertainer and dancer Gregory Hines born

February 15th 1804
New Jersey begins to abolish slavery The New Jersey Legislature approved a law calling for "gradual" emancipation of African Americans. In so doing, New Jersey became the last Northern state to outlaw slavery.

February 15th 1848
Sarah Roberts barred from white school in Boston. Her father, Benjamin Roberts, filed the first school integration suit on her behalf.

February 15th 1851
Black abolitionists invaded Boston courtroom and rescued a fugitive slave.

Wednesday, February 15, 1961
African Protests Disrupt UN U.S. and African nationalist protesting the slaying of Congo Premire Patrice Lumumba distrupts U.N.

Monday, February 15, 1965
Nat King Cole (45), singer and pianist, died in Santa Monica, California.

February 16th 1857
Frederick Douglass elected President of Freedman Bank and Trust.

Friday, February 16, 1923
Bessie Smith On this day Bessie Smith makes her first recording, "Down Hearted Blues," which sells 800,000 copies for Columbia Records.

Friday, February 16, 1951
New York City Council passed bill prohibiting racial discrimination in city-assisted housing developments.

Saturday, February 16, 1957
Actor Levar Burton was born in Landsthul, Germany. Burton won fame for his acting in the television movie "roots," which was based on the novel by Alex Haley.

Monday, February 16, 1970
Joe Frazier knocked out Jimmy Ellis in the second round of their New York fight and became the world heavyweight boxing champion.

February 17th 1870
Congress passed resolution readmitting Mississippi on condition that it would never change its constitution to disenfranchise Blacks.

February 17th 1891
Churn Invented A. C. Richardson, a black inventor, invented the churn, patent #466,470

February 17th 1891
A.C. Richardson patents churn Patent No. 466,470

Monday, February 17, 1902
Opera singer Marian Anderson was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Anderson was entered in the New York Philharmonic Competition at age 17 by her music teacher, and placed first over 299 other singers.

Sunday, February 17, 1918
Birthday of Rep. Charles A. Hayes, D-Illinois, who was born in CAiro, Illinois. In 1989, Hayes was re-elected to a fourth term in the House of Representatives. He was first elected Sept. 12, 1983.

February 18th 1688
First formal protest against slavery by organized white body in English America made by Germantown (Pa.) Quakers at monthly meeting. The historic "Germantown Protest" denounced slavery and the slave trade.

February 18th 1865
Rebels abandoned Charleston. First Union troops to enter the city included Twenty-first U.S.C.T., followed by two companies of the Fifty-fourth Massachusetts Volunteers.

February 18th 1867
An institution was founded at Augusta, Georgia which was later to become Morehouse College, following its relocation to Atlanta. Morehouse College is one of the most prestigious black colleges.

February 18th 1896
H. Grenon patents razor stropping device Patent No. 554,867

February 19th 1864
Knights of Pythias established. Confederate troops defeated three Black and six white regiments at Battle of Olustee, about fifty miles from Jacksonville, Florida.

Wednesday, February 19, 1919
Pan-African Congress, organized by W.E.B. Du Bois, met a Grand Hotel, Paris. There were fifty-seven delegates sixteen from the United States and fourteen from Africa form sixteen countries and colonies.

Monday, February 19, 1940
Soul singer William "Smokey" Robinson born in Detroit, Michigan. Robinson's first singing group was the Miracles which he formed in 1955 while still in high school.

Thursday, February 19, 1942
Tuskegee Airmen initiated The Army Air Corps' all African American 100th Pursuit Squadron, later designated a fighter squadron, was activated at Tuskegee Institute. The squadron served honorably in England and in other regions.

February 20th 1869
Tennessee Governor W.C. Brownlow declared martial law in nine countries in Ku Klux Klan crisis.

February 20th 1895
Death of Frederick Douglass (78), Anacostia Heights, District of Columbia. Douglass was the leading Black spokesman for almost fifty years. He was a major abolitionist and a lecturer and editor.

February 20th 1900
J.F. Bickering patents airship invention

February 21th 1895
North Carolina Legislature, dominated by Black Republicans and white Populists, adjourned for the day to mark the death of Frederick Douglass.

Wednesday, February 21, 1917
Thelonious Sphere Monk (1917--82) Jazz musician; born in Rocky Mount, N.C. He was raised in New York

Tuesday, February 21, 1933
Birthday Nina Simone(Eunice Waymon), 66, singer ("I Love You Porgy," "Trouble in Mind") born Tryon, NC, Feb 21, 19933.

Friday, February 21, 1936
2/21/1936: On this day Barbar Jordan, who will be the first African American woman elected to the House of Representatives, is born.

Sunday, February 21, 1965
2/21/1965: On this day Bro. El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz (Malcom X), American black nationalist, is assassinated.

February 22th 1888
In West Chester, Pennsylvania, African American painter Horace Pippin was born. Pippin is considered one of the major American painters of his period.

February 22th 1898
Black postmaster lynched and his wife and three Black postmaster lynched and his wife and three daughters shot and maimed for life in Lake City, S.C.

Wednesday, February 22, 1911
On this day, the "Bronze Muse" died in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Frances Ellen Watkins Harper wrote more than a dozen books, including 'Poems on Miscellaneous Subjects'(1854);

Wednesday, February 22, 1911
Activist and social reformer Francis Ellen Watkins Harper dies in her home in Philadelphia. Harper founderd the Naiontl Convention of Colored Women in 1864 and was involved in other projects for women.

Wednesday, February 22, 1950
Birthday Julius Winfield( "Dr.J") Erving, 49, former basketball player, born Roosevelt, NY, Feb 22, 1950

February 23th 1868
William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (W.E.B. Du Bois) was born on this day, educator and civil rights advocate, is born in Great Barrington, Mass..

February 23th 1869
Louisiana governor signed public accommodations law.

February 23th 1895
William H. Heard, AME minister and educator, named minister to Liberia.

Tuesday, February 23, 1915
Death of Robert Smalls (75), Reconstruction congressman, in Beaufort, South Carolina.

February 24th 1811
Bishop of AME Church Daniel Payne born

February 24th 1864
2/24/1864: Rebecca Lee becomes the first black woman to receive an M.D. degree.

Saturday, February 24, 1940
Former world heavyweight boxing champion Jimmy Ellis was born James Albert Ellis in Louisville, Kentucky. Ellis won the World Boxing Association title after beating Jerry Quarry in April 1968.

Thursday, February 24, 1966
Elected leader and first president of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah, ousted in military coup while he is away on a peace mission to Vietnam.

February 25th 1839
Seminoles and their Black allies shipped from Tampa Bay, Florida, to the West.

February 25th 1870
Hirman R. Revels of Mississippi sworn in as first Black U.S. senator and first Black representative in Congress.

Saturday, February 25, 1928
"One-Man Show of Art by Negro, First of Kind Here, Opens Today," read the headline of a front-page article in 'The New York Times' on this day.

Wednesday, February 25, 1948
Martin Luther King ordained as a Baptist minister

Tuesday, February 25, 1964
Nat King Cole, the singer with the "Golden Voice", dies.

February 26th 1869
Fifteenth Amendment guaranteeing the right to vote sent to the states for ratification.

February 26th 1870
Wyatt Outlaw, Black leader of the Union League in Alamance County, N.C., Lynched.

February 26th 1877
At a conference in the Wormley Hotel in Washington, representatives of Rutherford B. Hayes and representatives of the South negotiated agreement which paved the way for the election of Hayes as president.

February 26th 1884
Birthday of Congressman James E. O'Hara of North Carolina. First elected March 4, 1833, O'Hara served two terms, the second ending March 3, 1887.

Friday, February 26, 1926
Theodore "Georgia Deacon" Flowers wins middleweight boxing title.

February 27th 1788
*Probable date of Prince Hall's birth Prince Hall, Revolutionary War Veteran and founder of African Masonic Lodges, *may* have been born on this date. Though his accomplishments are well celebrated, little is known of Prince Hall's early life.

February 27th 1833
On this day in 1833, Maria W. Steward delivered one of the four speeches which confirmed her place in history as the first American-born woman to give public lecturers.

February 27th 1869
Congress adopted the 15th constitutional amendment, making it illegal for the US or any single government to deny or abridge the right to vote "on account of race, color or previous condition of service.

February 27th 1869
John W. Menard spoke in Congress in defense of his claim to a contested seat in Louisiana's Second Congressional District. Congress decided against both claimants.

February 28th 1704
Elias Neau, a Frenchman, opened school for Blacks in New York City.

February 28th 1708
Slave revolt, Newton, Long Island (N.Y.). Seven whites killed. Two Black male slaves and an Indian slave were hanged, and a Black woman was burned alive.

February 28th 1778
Rhode Island General Assembly in precedent-breaking act authorized the enlistment of slaves.

February 28th 1859
Arkansas legislature required free Blacks to choose between exile and enslavement.

February 28th 1871
Second Enforcement Act gave federal officers and courts control of registration and voting in congressional elections.

Thursday, February 29, 1940
On this day, Hattie McDaniel known for her supporting roles became the first African American to win the Oscar Award for her role as 'Mammy'in the movie 'Gone With The Wind'.

February 29th 1945
Football player and actor Charles Aaron "Bubba" Smith was born in Orange, Texas. Smith began his professional football career with the Baltimore Colts. He later played for the Houston Oilers and Oakland Raiders

Thursday, February 29, 1968
National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (the Kerner Commission) said white racism was the fundamental cause of the riots in American cities.

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